Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа

This is due to the character of the predicative relation in general. The metaphor in this case can be likened to an epithet.

There are different terms to denote those particular means in linguistics by which a writer obtains his affect. Expressive means, stylistic devices and other terms are used indiscriminately. For our purposes it is necessary to make a distinction between expressive means and stylistic devices.

At the lexical level there are a great many words which due to their inner expressivities, constitute a special layer. There are words with emotive meaning only, like interjections, words which have both referential and emotive meaning only, like some of qualitative adjectives, words which retain twofold meaning; denotative and connotative; or word belonging to special groups of literary English. The expressive power of these words cannot be Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа.

In such words as to melt away as in "these misgivings gradually melted away" we can still Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа remnants of the original meaning and Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа spite of the fact that the meaning to vanish, to disappear is already fixed in dictionaries as one of derivative meanings, the primary meaning still makes Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа fell.

The study of the styles of Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа as subsystems of the literary language and distinguished from each other by a peculiar set of interdependent language means and. The study of these means in a system disclosing their linguistics properties and nature as well as the functioning of their laws. The subject of stylistics can be outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and, on the other, the study of each style of language as classified above, i.

It is a transfer of a name based on the association of similarity and thus is actually a hidden comparison. It presents a method of description which likens one thing to another by referring to it as if it were some other one.

Because on the one hand not all of these notions are relevant to the domain of linguistics, and on the other, this book is intended to be a theoretical course of stylistics in which only crucial issues shall be taken up. Indeed, individual styles or manners of writing do not come under our observation, this being an entirely different field of linguistic and literary study. It has already been pointed out that individual manner, though it may conform to the norms of the language to a greater or lesser degree, will nevertheless be the practical realization of abstract language units in other words here we have Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа, that is, speech.

They are just like words themselves they are facts of the language. This can be illustrated in the following manner: Proverbs and sayings are facts of language. They are collected in dictionaries. They are special dictionaries of proverbs and sayings in a form that would Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа a pattern even though they have some typical features by which it is possible to determine whether of not we are dealing with one.

The relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol - referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third, irony. A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts.

In: "The human tide is rolling westward". Here the metaphors lie in the verbs. Metaphors, like all stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected are called genuine metaphors.

Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called contextual meanings. It may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. This is especially the case when we deal with transferred meanings. Transferred meaning is the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа and contextual.

The task we set before ourselves is to make an attempt to single out such problems as are typically stylistic and cannot therefore be treated in any other branch of linguistic science. Some of the notions of style enumerated not treated in this book.

Stylistics in that case is confined to the study of expressions of thought. Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Linguistics, pp. This point of view on style is shared by Professor W. Porzig who says that the means which " Das Wunder der Sprache, Bernp. Quite a different definition of style and stylistics, one that is interesting in more than one way, is that given by Archibald A. Mill, is that structures, sequences, and patterns which extend, or may extend, beyond the boundaries of individual sentences define style, and the study of them is stylistics".

As regards style as technique of expression, we hold the view that this very important issue must be presented in a special work on composition. So it is with stylistic devices. As regards the system of styles of language in English, we are in a position to point out the most characteristic features of the styles of language.

Two of them, a man with long fair moustaches and a silent dark man Definitely, the moustache and I had nothing in common ". We have a feature of a man which catches the eye, in this case his facial appearance: the moustache stands for the man himself. The function of the metonymy here is to indicate that the speaker knows nothing of the man in question, moreover there is a definite implication that his is the first time the speaker has seen him.

In describing some past event the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisation of who was going on. The use of shall in the second and third person may also be regarded as an expressive means. Among word-building means we find a great many forms which serve to make the utterance more expressive and fresh or to intensify it. The diminutive suffixes as-y, -let, e.

In soul, and aspect as in age: years steal. Fire from the mind as I vigor from the limb. The metaphors steal; fire, cup, brim embodied in verbs and nouns not used predicatively can be regarded as fully, identified with the concepts they aim at producing. The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. This is its main function. Genuine metaphors are mostly to be Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language.

A course of stylistics will be profitable to those who have a sound linguistic background. The expressive means of English and the stylistic devices used in the literary language can only be understood when a thorough knowledge of the phonetic, grammatical and lexical data of the given language has been attained.

This is accordance with the laws which govern the functioning of every language fact. We shall make an extensive analysis of individual usage of stylistic devices in as much as they disclose Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа yet unknown or unused potentialities. Our task is to show the variable functioning of stylistic devices. This will help as to define the means existing in the English language and perhaps in other language as we!!

Language, being one of the means of communications or, to be exact, the most important means of communication, is regarded as an instrument by means of which the actual process of conveying ideas from one person to another is Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа out.

It would perhaps be more correct to say that unlike expressive means, stylistic devices are patterns of the language where as the expressive means do not font patterns.

The truth of this approach to style and stylistics lies in the fact that the author Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа on such phenomena in language as present a system, in other words on facts which are not confined to individual use. Almost the same view is held by Seymour Chatman who writes of "style as a product of individual choices and patterns of choices among linguistic possibilities" Seymour Chatman.

Those which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite or dead metaphors. Therefore a word metaphor is narrow, subjectively enclosed They are time - worn and well rubbed into the language: a ray of hope, floods of tears, a storm of indignation, a flight of fancy, a gleam of mirth, a shadow of a smile and the like.

Undoubtedly all these discrepancies in the understanding of the word style stem from its ambiguity. But still all the various definitions leave an impression that by and large they all have something in common. All of them point to some integral significance, namely that style is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish members of the same general class. A significant contribution to the cause of stylistics is being made by Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа journal Style published by the University of Arcansas.

Professor Chatman, though he uses the word "individual" in a different meaning, practically says the same as Professor Hill but unlike him, confines style to what we have called here individual style or the style of the author. A broader view of style is expressed by Werner Winter, who maintains that:. Various types of selection can be found: complete exclusion Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа an optional element, obligatory inclusion of a feature optional elsewhere, varying degrees of inclusion of a specific variant without complete elimination of competing features" Werner Winter.

The relation of proximity, as in: "The round game table was boisterous and happy" Dickens. The material instead of the thing made of it, as in: "The marble spoke ". The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа action or the doer himself, as in:.

When we are using one entity to refer to another that is related to it then this is a case of what we will call metonymy here are some examples:. He likes to read the Marquis de Sade the writings of the Marquis de Sade. He is in dance the dancing profession. New windshield wiper will satisfy him the state of having new wipers. We can include as a special case of metonymy what traditional rhetoricians have called synecdoche where the part stands for the whole, as in the following.

These features have been carefully studies and on the basis of previous investigation into the linguistic character of stylistic devices brought into a kind of system. It is sometimes enough merely to point out the interrelation on the characteristic features of a given style of language to be able to tell one style from another.

Proceedings of the Ninth International Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа of Linguistics p. The idea of distinguishing styles by various types of selection seems to be a sound one. It places the whole problem on a solid foundation of objective criteria, namely the interdependence of optional and obligatory features. There is no use in quoting other definitions of style. They are too many and too heterogeneous to fall under one more of less satisfactory unified notion.

Here also the interrelation between the dictionary and contextual meanings should stand out clearly and conspicuously.

Life has cheated me. Inflation is eating up our profits. In each case we are seeing something non-human as human. Metonymy is based on different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.

All stylistic means of a language can be divided into expressive means EMwhich are used in some specific way, and special devices called stylistic devices SD. The expressive means of a language are those phonetic Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа, morphological forms, and means of word building, and lexical, phrase logical and syntactical forms. Phonetic is the most powerful expressive means of any language. The human voice can indicate subtle nuances of meaning that no other means can attain.

The use of trite metaphors should not be regarded as a drawback of style. They help the writer to enliven his work and even make the meaning more concrete. There is constant interaction between genuine and trite metaphors. Genuine metaphors if they are good and can stand the test of time and consequently easily predictable. Trite metaphors may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of the metaphor.

A hand is used for a worker; the cradle stands for infancy, earliest stages, place of origin and the grave stands for death. Metonymy used in language - in action or speech is contextual metonymy, is genuine Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another or even of one concept Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа another, on the ground of some strong impression produced Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа a chance feature of the thing, for example.

The automobile is clogging our highways the collection of automobiles. We need a couple of strong bodies for our team strong people. There are a lot of good heads in the university intelligent people. In these cases, as in the other cases of metonymy, one entity is being used to refer to another.

Pitch, melody, stress, pulsation, drawling out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any other means in intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically. Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Indefinite instead of the Past Indefinite Must is mentioned first.

These typical features are: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and alliteration. The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices can be worded in terms of the theory of information. Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability than stylistic devices. Expressive means are commonly used in language, and are therefore easily predictable. Stylistic devices carry a greater amount of information because if they are at all predictable they are less predictable than expressive means.

Stylistic devices are abstract categories Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа language-as-a-system, that is, language proper. But the practical application of these abstract categories, being spontaneous, represents language-in-action, or speech.

But when people speak of a person they know calling him Falstaff they make a proper name generic for a corpulent, jovial, irrepressibly impudent person and it no longer denotes Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа unique being. If a person is an out - and - out mercenary and a hypocrite into the bargain they call him a Philistine, ruthlessly destructive people are called Vandals. Metaphors can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech, as in preposition.

The same can be said of the set expressions of the language. Proverbs and sayings as well as catch words form a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech more emphatic. In every day speech you often hear such phrases as "Well, it will only add fuel to the fire", and the like, which can easily be replaced by synonymous neutral expressions, like "It will only make the situation worse".

Potebnja thus shows how the expressive means of the Russian languages are transformed into stylistic devices. He describes How Gogol uses the literal repetition characteristic of folklore instead of allusions and references. The birth of an SD is not accidental language means which are used with more or less definite aims of communication and in one and the same function in various passages of writing, begin gradually to develop new features and become a relative means of the language, like proverbs and sayings, diminutive suffixes and the like.

Only then we can state that a stylistic device is used. The examples of metonymy given above are traditional in fact they are derivative logical meanings and therefore fixed in dictionaries. However, when such meanings are included in dictionaries, there is usually a label fig.

But if the metaphors in the word can hardly be felt and refreshed by the context which will give it a second life than such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. The metaphor is often defined as a compressed simile. But this definition lacks precision. As the metaphor aims at identifying the objects, while the simile aims at finding some point of resemblance by keeping the objects apart. That is why these two stylistic devices are viewed Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа belonging to two different groups of SDs.

Thus many facts of English grammar are said to be used with a stylistic function, e. These have become facts of special branch of linguistic science as stylistics. All these facts are facts of general linguistics. But in general linguistics they are viewed as means either of creating new meanings of words, or of serving the purpose of making the utterance more comprehensive. But the process of the development of language does not take into confederation the likes or dislikes of this or that.

Not every stylistic use of a language fact will come under the term SD. There are practically unlimited possibilities of presenting any language fact in what is vaguely called its stylistic use. But this use forms an SDF or a language fact to become an SD there is one indispensable requirement, it should be so much used in one and the same function that is has become generalized in its functions.

The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of language and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. When, we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which two meanings interact.

Metaphor is principally a way of conceiving of one thing in terms of another, and its primary function understands: Metonymy, on the other hand, has primarily a referential function, that is it allows us to use one entity to stand for another.

A cunning person for instance is referred to as a fox. A woman may be called a peach, a lemon, a cat, a goose, etc. Paul points out; metaphors may be based upon very different types of similarity, for instance, similarity of shape: head of a cabbage, the teeth of a saw. The similarity may be supported also by position: foot of a page, of a mountain, or behavior and function: bookworm, wirepuller. The word whip a lash used to urge horses on is metaphorically transferred to an official in the British Parliament appointed by a political party to see that members are present at debates especially when a vote is taken, to cheek to voting and also to Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа the members on the policy of the respective party.

At the syntactical level there are many construction which, being set against synonymous ones, will reveal a certain degree of logical and emotional emphasis "1 have never seen such a film". Smith came in first". Smith who came in first". Stylistics, however, observes not only the nature of an expressive means, but also its potential capacity of becoming a stylistic device. Most stylistic devices may be regarded Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа aiming at the further intensification of the emotional or logical emphasis contained in the expressive means.

SD must be observed on different levels: on the phonetic, morphemic, lexical, phraseological, syntactical levels and on the utterance level. If a thorough command-of language data has not been acquired, the subtleties of the theory of stylistics may escape the student or may prove to be beyond his grasp.

Stylistic devices of a highly developed language like English or Russian have brought into a literary language a separate body of means of expression which have won recognition as a constituent to be studied in the branch of language study named Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа.

Metonymy and metaphor differ also in the way they are deciphered. This is not the case with metonymy. Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind does Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа exclude the other. In the example above the moustache and the man himself are both perceived by the mind. Metonymy is based on the following most common types of relation:. The concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. The container instead of the thing contained: "The hall applauded".

In the leg of the table the metaphor is motivated by the similarity of the lower part of the table and the human limb in position and partly in shape and function. Some subgroup of metaphors comprised transitions of proper names into common ones: an Adonis, a Cicero, a Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа Juan, etc.

And can do what to like with your horses, we Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа Dickens. The instances of metonymy are very often used with the definite article, or with no article at all as in "There was perfect sympathy between Pulpit and Pew" where Pulpit stands for clergyman and Pew for the congregation. This is probably due to the fact that any definition Lexical stylistic devices дипломная работа a word a may be taken for metonymy, inasmuch as it shows a property or an essential quality of the concept, thus disclosing a kind of relation between the thing as a whole and a feature of it which may be regarded as part of it.

From numerous conferences, discussions, theses, monographs and articles published in our country and abroad there emerges a more or less clear statement as to what we subject of linguo-stylistics represents.

They are different in their linguistic nature. The degree of identification of objects or phenomena in a metaphor varies according to its syntactic function in the sentence and to the part of speech in which it is embodied. Thus when the metaphor is expressed in a noun - predicative, the degree of identification is very low.

A line of demarcation must be drawn between literary stylistic and linguistic stylistic. It is necessary to bear in mind the constant interrelation between the ends. Some linguists consider that the subject of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of the message, i. Thus Michael Riffaterre writes that:. This point of view is influenced by recent developments in the general theory of information.

Metonymies are not random or arbitrary occurrences. Its concepts are systematic, as can be seen in the following representative examples that exist in our culture and the part for the whole. Get your butt over here. The Giant need a stronger arm in right field.

Personification is a general category that covers a very wide range of metaphors. They allow us to make sense of phenomena in the world in human terms - terms that we can understand on the basis of our own motivations, goals, actions and characteristics. In personification the physical object is further specified as being a person. And this allows us to comprehend a wide variety of. Here are some examples:. His theory explained to me the behavior of chickens raised in factories. This fact argues against the standard theories.